102 exam question 4 Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

102 exam question 4 - Article Example Friedman assumed that focusing on open social investments was not proper for business well-being and this would divert the goals of the business. The ideal goal of the company is to provide a return to its shareholders. By focusing on external social responsibilities, the corporation is distracted from its sole purpose. Friedman asserted that corporations do not know how to properly invest in social causes (Friedman, 1970/2002). Friedman deemed this as a tax upon stockholders of which they have no decision regarding how it is spent. Consequently, he added that an individual is on liberty to pursue social responsibilities; this is because the corporate executive lacks the ability to properly perform such actions (Friedman, 1970/2002). On the other hand, according to Archie Carroll’s, adding on to making a profit and obeying the law, a company should endeavor to improve or solve societal needs. His view is generally advocated through stakeholder theory. This theory maintains that corporations should consider the effects of their actions upon other individuals at stake or of interest in the corporation such as customers, suppliers, general public, and employees (Carroll, 1987). Businesses cannot pursue their long term profit returns if they have poor relations with their stakeholders or the environment. Meanwhile, firms cannot meet all the needs of their stakeholders and continue making profits. It is therefore advisable that management decisions should be based on an objective ethical code of conduct. Using the money that shareholders have invested in the businesses to support unprofitable needs of the society is clearly wrong. Therefore, businesses should make profits, obey the law, act according to an ethical standard, and only pursue corporate social responsibility activities that improve long-term shareholder wealth. A  corporation  is a legal entity, meaning it is a separate entity from its

Dishonest salespeople and gossip Essay Example for Free

Dishonest salespeople and gossip Essay No matter what culture one belongs, common observation shows that women â€Å"gossip† while men â€Å"talk shop†; women are â€Å"bossy† and men are â€Å"firm† (Women’s Language, 2005). However, even if common observation shows that women talk more than men, research findings prove otherwise. In fact, findings would even show that â€Å"men have been shown to talk more than women in settings as diverse as staff meetings, television panel discussions and husband-and-wife pairs in spontaneous conversation† (Women’s Language, 2005). As men tend to talk about â€Å"male things† like politics, sports, cars, women talk about the â€Å"women things† such as child-rearing, household chores and some personal relationships. According to Pamela Fishman’s research studies, women are relatively weak in interactive situations because they tend to â€Å"exploit questions and answers in order to force a response and keep the conversation going† (Women’s Language, 2005). Therefore, â€Å"gossiping† is common and universal. People always love to hear something about the other person who is not on the scene of conversation. What about dishonest salespeople? (rhetorical question) Are these people more disgusting than those who gossip? Looking at the gravity of damage which one causes more harm?   Looking at the gravity between the results, which causes greater damage? Looking at the gravity of the situation, it seems that gossiping is the most destructive trait here. (parallelism). But of course, people will not discount the fact that dishonesty in sales is also a bad trait. For one, not all incidents of dishonesty are detected and not all detected cases are reported. Therefore any fraud statistic is an estimate. Nevertheless, the statistics make it clear that dishonesty in salespeople occurs frequently, and no organization is immune (Peterson Zikmund, 2004). The costs of fraud and dishonesty will continue to rise unless auditors, management, and the general public become more proactive in learning about the types of fraud, the perpetrators and valuable fraud prevention and detection techniques (Bezanis, 2002). It is important to be able to know the difference between the real and spurious products in order to maintain the good image of that company. Fraud is conventionally defined as â€Å"intentional deception, deceitful pretenses, or deliberate trickery to gain an advantage† (Hanlin, 2004). Fraud encompasses an array of irregularities and illegal acts characterized by intentional deception. Every fraud involves three elements: (1) theft act, (2) concealment, and (3) conversion (Albrecht Albrecht, 2001). For instance, buyers who get the misfortune of buying fake Gucci bags are able to identify the fake product because of the flimsy hardware, cheap leather and misspelled logos. The fake bags are so like the originals that it is hard to spot them quickly. There are businessmen who are able to copy the smart way. High-end label bags cost around $500 to over $1,000. Anything less than these price ranges are fake. Buyers are also encouraged to read the fine print so that they do not buy those that says, â€Å"Designer Inspired.† The numerous issues which plague the business sector with allegations and prosecution of unethical conduct easily fall under either the definition of fraud or unfair and deceptive practices. Or if the issue does not fit with the two terms, it can fall under unethical business conduct. The unethical conduct is a catchall phrase that includes fraud and unfair practice and other aspects beyond the scope of the two terms. In the same manner, gossip is also an unethical business indulged by people regarding other people. However, gossip causes hurt. It can hurt people and damage lives. Thus, gossip, depending on the seriousness can be extremely dangerous too. It can damage a person’s reputation and image. In the long run, gossip seems to be more damaging than dishonest salespeople because one can always return a fake product. But the destruction one causes in gossip spreads like wildfire and cannot be restored. As defined, ethical business conduct is doing something that is not required by law, contract, or other obligation and which is a positive contribution to society. Therefore, a contrary conduct is unethical. This means doing something which is prohibited by law, contract, or other obligation or which has a negative contribution to society. Contribution to society is now part of the definition because ethical business conduct has evolved into what is termed as corporate and social responsibility. An act of the company has a vast effect on the society as a whole. In the course of human interactions, there are many situations in which it is difficult to make a decision because values come into conflict. It is essential that an individual or an organization engage in values clarification to develop a personal decision-making process that fosters ethical behavior.

Eriksons Eight Stages Of Psychosocial Development Psychology Essay

Eriksons Eight Stages Of Psychosocial Development Psychology Essay It is obvious that human undergo lots of changes such as biological, cognitive, psychological and in behaviour since the time of conception till they attain their complete adult age. These changes are said to be under any of the influences like nature, nurture, environment, and social. We also know that based on these aspects, numbers of psychologist such as B. F Skinner, Sigmund Freud, Albert Bandura, Jean Pieget Carl Rogers and Erik Erikson have proposed many theories pertaining to human development. One of the main among them was, Erik Erikson, possibly the best known of Sigmund Freuds many followers, who have proposed psychosocial theory. In his theory, he strongly believed that psychosocial principle is genetically inevitable in shaping human development.   His theory indirectly reveals that our personality traits come in opposites; we think of ourselves as optimistic or pessimistic, independent or dependent, emotional or unemotional, adventurous or cautious, leader or follower, aggressive or passive. Many of these are inborn temperament traits, but other characteristics, such as feeling either competent or inferior, appear to be learned, based on the challenges (mind: psychological, and physical), and support due to social ( relationships) we receive in growing up. Moreover, it says It is human to have a long childhood; it is civilized to have an even longer childhood. Long childhood makes  a technical and mental virtuoso out of man, but it also leaves a life-long residue of emotional immaturity in him, (Erik Homburger Erikson (1902-1994)). Similarly a child goes through many changes and confronts with many developmental challenges that they have to overcome those challenges on the road from infancy to adulthood. There is a never ending struggle to make sense out of this complex process. And there is no end to theories trying to explain it. Thus, this essay looks at Eriksons psychological theories of development that comprises of five stages of development, and its implications and benefits of understanding the theory in following paragraphs. This essay also talks about the crises that must be resolved in every stage that we attain in the process of development. Eriksons eight stages of psychosocial development Erik Erikson believed that childhood is very important in personality development. He developed a theory of psychosocial development that covers an entire life. Get through his initial five stages and we will be an adult. Each stage is a challenge or crisis that must be resolved before going to another stage. His theory of psychosocial development is considered as one of the best-known theories of personality in psychology. Much like Sigmund Freud, Erikson believed that personality develops in a series of stages. Unlike Freuds theory of psychosexual stages, Eriksons theory describes the impact of social experience across the whole lifespan. One of the main elements of Eriksons psychosocial stage theory is the development of ego identity. Ego identity is the conscious sense of self that we develop through social interaction. According to Erikson, our ego identity is constantly changing due to new experience and information we acquire in our daily interactions with others. In addition to ego identity, Erikson also believed that a sense of competence also motivates behaviours and actions. Each stage in Eriksons theory is concerned with becoming competent in an area of life. If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery. If the stage is managed poorly, the person will emerge with a sense of inadequacy. Various terms are used to describe Eriksons model, for example Eriksons bio psychosocial or bio-psycho-social theory (bio refers to biological, which in this context means life); Eriksons human development cycle or life cycle, and variations of these. All refer to the same eight stages psychosocial theory, it being Eriksons most distinct work and remarkable model. All of the stages in Eriksons epigenetic theory are implicitly present at birth but unfold according to both an innate scheme and ones up-bringing in a family that expresses the values of a culture. Each stage builds on the preceding stages, and paves the way for subsequent stages. Each stage is characterized by a psychosocial crisis, which is based on physiological development, but also on demands put on the individual by parents and/or society. Ideally, the crisis in each stage should be resolved by the ego in that stage, in order for development to proceed correctly. The outcome of one stage is not permanent, but can be altered by later experiences. Everyone has a mixture of the traits attained at each stage, but personality development is considered successful if the individual has more of the good traits than the bad traits. Those eight stages of development are as follow: Trust vs. Mistrust Eriksons first psychosocial conflict is trust versus mistrust. This stage begins at birth and continues until about one year of age. The central issue that infants resolve in this stage is Can I trust others? Erikson, in his theory explains that infants learn to trust other people if their needs are satisfied by their caregivers. If a caregiver is irresponsible to the infants needs and they go un-met, then instead of developing trustworthiness, the infant will develop mistrust n his or her mind. In this stage, infants will also start realizing that they are state of dependent o independent to caregivers who respond to their need. That is how they begin to distinguish self from others. For example, many researchers have found that two to three month old infants do begin to distinguish themselves from their caretakers However, by resolving this crisis at this the infant will develop a healthy balance between trust and mistrust that is if only they are fed and cared for and not over-indulged or over-protected. For instance, being cruelty to them will destroy trust and lead to development of mistrust which results in incensement of a persons resistance to risk-exposure and exploration. On the other hand infants who grow up to trust are more able to hope and have faith that every things will be fine and develop a sense of challenge in his or her mind. Therefore, it is important to development to have a successful resolution of this stage because it lays the foundation for each additional stage. If a stage is not resolved correctly, later stages may remain unresolved as well. Parents are primarily responsible for satisfying this stage of development in their child. It is imperative parents are attentive to their infants needs so trust can be developed. Autonomy vs. shame and doubt The second stage is anatomy verses shame and doubt. This occurs from about eighteen months of age to around three years old. In this stage most critical issue they confront is that their intermediate state, not sure about whether they can do things on their own or do they need someone to assist them. Erikson says that this is the point at which the child can develop a certain amount of independence/autonomy, or otherwise end up in doubt and shame or always as dependent. Autonomy (self-reliance) is independence of thought, and a basic confidence to think and act ones own. Shame and Doubt refers to reduction in self-expression and developing ones own ideas, opinions and sense of self.   It is at this stage that the child needs support from parents so that repeated failures and ridicule are not the only experiences encountered.   So, the parents need to encourage the child to becoming more independent whilst at the same time protecting the child so that constant failure is avoided. They must try not to do everything for the child but if the child fails at a particular task they must not criticize the child for failures and accidents.   For example, toilet training is a said to be significant part of this crisis where parental reactions, encouragement and patience play an impor tant role in shaping the young childs experience and successful progression through this period. When children in this stage are encouraged and supported in their increased independence, they become more confident and secure in their own ability to survive in the world.   If children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert themselves, they begin to feel inadequate in their ability to survive, and may then become overly dependent upon others, lack self-esteem, and feel a sense of shame or doubt in their own abilities. If one was to achieve autonomy then they would have a feeling of confidence, but if those that dont achieve autonomy doubt their own abilities and have a sense of inadequacy. Therefore, the importance of parental reaction should have concerns in all aspects of toddler exploration and discovery while small children struggle to find their feet almost literally as little people in their own right. Imitative vs. Guilt Imitative vs. Guilt is the third stage of psychosocial development. It is around three to six years of age when this role must be established. The main role is to establish purpose and its achieve through exploration and play (Cherry, 2011). That means, children begin to affirm their power over the world through interactions between people and play and by asserting over their environment through different challenges. Initiative is the capability to devise actions or projects, and a confidence and belief that it is okay to do so, even with a risk of failure or making mistakes. That is how their idea of initiative develops positively. On the other hand if the child is not given chance to play and explore or stoped taking any kind of initiative, they understand their actions as a point if embarrassment and results in developing guild in them. Thus, guilt refers the feeling that it is wrong or inappropriate to instigate something of ones own design. Guilt results from being admonished or believing that something is wrong or likely to attract disapproval. Suppressing adventure and experimentation, or preventing young children doing things for themselves because of time, mess or a bit of risk will inhibit the development of confidence to initiate, replacing it instead with an unhelpful fear of being wrong or unapproved. The fear of being admonished or accused of being stupid becomes a part of the personality. If I dont initiate or stick my neck out Ill be safe... Therefore, it is duty of parents and caregivers to solve this crises, and challenge to get the balance right between giving young children enough space and encouragement so as to foster a sense of purpose and confidence, but to protect against danger. Industry vs. Inferiority In the Eriksons theory of psychosocial development, industry verses inferiority is the fourth stage. This takes place around the age of six to eleven years old. In this stage a person will be asking them self How can I be good?(Cherry, 2011). In this stage they try to master with their new and complex skills in accomplishing their task because they do increasingly complicated tasks. Erikson described this stage as a sort of entrance to life, and is a crucial aspect of school years experience. A child who experiences the satisfaction of achievement of anything positive will move towards successful negotiation of this crisis stage. However if a child who experiences failure at school tasks and work, or worse still who is denied the opportunity to discover and develop their own capabilities and strengths and unique potential, quite naturally is prone to feeling inferior and useless and develop very low self-stem in them. To solve this crisis, parents, teachers or caregiver should let them engage with others through social interaction and using tools or technology. Therefore, their supports in approving of what children are doing results in Childs believe in themselves. If reinforcement to the positive aspects lacks then they will believe that they are inferior to everyone and they dont matter. Identity vs. Identity confusion Identity vs. Identity confusion is the fifth stage where one is supposed to achieve their identity from the ages of twelve to eighteen. Before this stage, a person was exploring and discovering their independence and sense of self. But in this stage they develop a sense of self and personal identity. Erikson believe that here the child has to learn the roles he will occupy as an adult. It is during this stage that the adolescent will re-examine his identity and try to find out exactly who he is.   During this stage the body image of the adolescent changes and success in this stage will lead to the virtue of  fidelity. Their exploring of possibilities and beginning to form own identity develops a sense of direction in life. If all goes well, then a person will have a strong sense of self and independent and in control of the situation. However, if there is a lack of reinforcement, then the person will be insecure and will be confused about them in the future. The sense of who they are gets hindered, then it will result in a sense of confusion about them and their role in the world and that is how they cant adapt and establish in the society. Therefore, in order to solve this problem positive reinforcement from parents, teachers, school, society and friends is vital. Intimacy vs. Isolation From the age of nineteen to forty one will in the stage of intimacy vs. isolation. Intimacy means the process of achieving relationships with family and marital or mating partner. He explained this stage also in terms of sexual mutuality the giving and receiving of physical and emotional connection, support, love, comfort, trust, and all the other elements that we would typically associate with healthy adult relationships conducive to mating and child-rearing. We explore relationships leading toward longer term commitments with someone other than a family member.   Successful completion can lead to comfortable relationships and a sense of commitment, safety, and care within a relationship.   Isolation conversely means being and feeling excluded from the usual life experiences of dating and mating and mutually loving relationships. This logically is characterised by feelings of loneliness, alienation, social withdrawal or non-participation. Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and sometimes depression. Thus to be successful in this stage, it is highly important that we achieve our identity. Developing close, intimate friendships are important to person so that we will have strong relationship. If not, its failure will lead to isolation and the lack of relationship. Generatively vs. Stagnation Generatively vs. Stagnation is the seventh stage in Eriksons psychosocial development. It occurs from forty years old to sixty-five years old. And this stage struck with the question how to contribute to the world? Here, adult strive to nurture things that they want their children to do the things that will help the world or something that they will be remembered by. For example, during middle adulthood, we establish our careers, settle down within a relationship, begin our own families and develop a sense of being a part of the bigger picture.   We give back to society through raising our children, being productive at work, and becoming involved in community activities and organizations.   On the other side, if person fail in finding a way to contribute to the society or by failing to achieve these objectives, we become stagnant and feel unproductive. This will result in individuals feeling disconnected or uninvolved with their society. Ego integrity vs. Despair This is the final stage in Eriksons developmental theory of psychosocial. Their age limit is from sixty five years till death. As we grow older and become senior citizens, we tend to slow down our productivity, and explore life as a retired person.   It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and are able to develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life. But Erik Erikson also believed if we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilt about our pasts, or feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness. So to overcome that despair, it is important to positively pass those above mentioned stages starting since infant. Importance of Eriksons theory in understanding human development Eriksons model of psychosocial development is a very significant, highly regarded and meaningful concept. He was a psychoanalyst and also a humanitarian. So his theory is useful far beyond psychoanalysis its useful for any application involving personal awareness and development of oneself or others. Life is a series of lessons and challenges which help us to grow, and here his wonderful theory helps to tell us why. The theory is helpful for child development and adults too as it highlight important issues in particular stage and suggest the solution for that crises in pursuit of better development. Moreover, his eight stages theory is said to be a tremendously powerful model: it is very accessible and obviously relevant to modern life, from several different perspectives, for understanding and explaining how personality and behaviour develops in people. In addition, Eriksons theory is useful for teaching, parenting, self-awareness, managing and coaching, dealing with conflict, and generally for understanding self and others. Thus, we can conclude that his work is as relevant today as when he first outlined his original theory, in fact given the modern pressures on society, family and relationships and the quest for personal development and fulfilment his ideas are probably more relevant now than ever. Is it the crises that must be resolved in each stage a catastrophe? In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that serves as a turning point in development. From his point of view, these conflicts are centred on either developing a psychological quality or failing to develop that quality. During these times, the potential for personal growth is high, but so is the potential for failure. We have found that in his stage, each stage involves a crisis of two opposing emotional forces where Erikson termed these opposing forces as contrary dispositions. Each crisis stage relates to a corresponding life stage and its inherent challenges. Successfully passing through each crisis involves maintaining balance  between the two opposing dispositions that represent each crisis. For example a healthy balance at crisis stage, stage one, Trust v Mistrust, might be described as experiencing and growing through the crisis Trust(of people, life and ones future development) and also experiencing and growing a suitable capacity for Mistrust where appropriate, so as not to be hopelessly unrealistic or gullible, nor to be mistrustful of everything. Or experiencing and growing through stage two (Autonomy v Shame Doubt) to be essentially Autonomous (to be ones own person and not a mindless or quivering follower) but to have sufficient capacity for Shame and Doubt, so as to be free-thinking and independent, while also being ethical and considerate and responsible, etc. Erikson called these successful balanced outcomes Basic Virtues or Basic Strengths. He identified one particular word to represent the fundamental strength gained at each stage. What the child acquires at a given stage is a certain  ratio  between the positive and negative, which if the balance is toward the positive, will help him to meet later crises with a better chance for unimpaired total developmentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦(Erikson) A well-balanced positive experience during each stage develops a corresponding  basic virtue-a helpful personality development, each of which enables a range of other related emotional and psychological strengths. For example passing successfully through the Industry versus Inferiority crisis produces the basic psychosocial virtue of competence, and related strengths such as method, skills, techniques, ability to work with processes and collaborations, etc). Where passage through a crisis stage is less successful then to a varying extent the personality acquires an unhelpful emotional or psychological tendency. Person passing  unsuccessfully  through a psychosocial crisis stage they develop a tendency towards one or other of the opposing forces, which then becomes a behavioural tendency, or even a mental problem which corresponds to one of the two opposite extremes of the crisis concerned. So, it is true that these crises are not really a catastrophe; rather, it is a turning point of increased vulnerability and enhanced potential where human can develop well unless and until it is not satisfactorily resolved. Conclusion Eriksons stages of psychological development were complex, but simple. It is something everyone will go through and experiences will always be different. Surprisingly, previous stages are highly influential to the proceeding stage. While Eriksons model emphasises the sequential significance of the eight character-forming crisis stages, the concept also asserts that humans continue to change and develop throughout their lives, and that personality is not exclusively formed during early childhood years. It is certainly a view that greatly assists encouraging oneself and others to see the future as an opportunity for positive change and development, instead of looking back with blame and regret. The better that people come through each crisis, the better they will tend to deal with what lies ahead, but this is not to say that all is lost and never to be recovered if a person has had a negative experience during any particular crisis stage. Lessons can be revisited successfully when they recur, if we recognise and welcome them. Finally I should say that he was keen to improve the way children and young people are taught and nurtured, and it would be appropriate for his ideas to be more widely known and used in day-to-day life as it is very powerful for self-awareness and improvement, and for teaching and helping others.

Essay --

In a patriarchal society that enforces the construction of heterosexual citizenship we are policed to follow normative discourses and structures that regulate social policies encouraging heteronormative behavior. Dominant ideologies of sexuality thus regulate and normalize social policies that create this second-class status for LGBT people. Those who fail to comply with conventional male and female behaviors are forced to live on the margins of society, excluding them from social, legal and economic rewards forcing homosexual individuals to live a life where they are required to constantly defend their sexual loyalties. The following essay will be used to discuss the challenges to normative constructions of sexuality by dismantling the naturalization of heterosexuality in analyzing the binary of heteronormativity with the use of the song ‘Same Love’ by hip-hop artist Macklemore. Heterosexuality is a political institution, which disempowers women and men by taking away their right to citizenship. Rapper Macklemore’s track provides a social commentary for the discussion of homosexual love in todays mainstream music. By expressing his support towards the sanction of gay marriage he is challenging normative sexuality, and spreading awareness towards a now-present social issue. By analyzing the song, music video and live Grammy performance it is clear LGBT communities break down taboos by rejecting this idea of a compulsory lifestyle. Using the work and writing of Lord, Ingraham and Concannon this paper will explore the relationship between citizenship, sexual identity and social exclusion. â€Å"The Silencing of Sexuality† by author Cassandra Lord focuses on the negative response society places on homosexuality. The concept of living a... ...owards heteronormativity. What people refer to, as normal human behavior doesn’t necessarily apply to everyone. However, due to conservative traditional and religious beliefs, the integration of homosexuals in society is often met with resistance. It can therefore be said that societal conservative tendencies have led to the intolerance of homosexuality therefore causing the inequality of LGBT men and women. In order to challenge normative constructions on sexuality one must first acknowledge that discrimination is still evident and continues to be a reason behind socio-political exclusion. The operations behind social policies cause oppression and isolation, and only re-thinking our approach in delivering new policies can hopefully one day meet the needs for a diverse lifestyle or in the words of Macklemore â€Å"It's human rights for everybody, there is no difference!†

Miss Havisham Essay

Miss Havisham is first introduced to the reader when Mr Pumblechook (Pips Uncle) announces that Miss Havisham Requests Pips presence to play at her house. Miss Havisham fits into the main plot because she trains Estella to â€Å" break their hearts.† When Pip sees Estella for the fist time, he instantly falls in love with her. Miss Havisham sees this and she encourages Pip to do so. Miss Havisham was also, in Pips eyes, the cause of his ‘Great expectations’ Miss Havisham may also have been placed in the novel by Dickens, To explore how the effects of bad experiences on people. In this case it would be Miss Havisham being jilted on her wedding day In the first description of Satis house you get the image of a dilapidated house that has been abandoned even though there is someone there still living there. When pip goes to miss Havishams house she asks him to touch her heart. This according to her is ‘Broken.’ When Miss Havisham says ‘I sometimes have sick fancies’ this shows that Miss Havisham is mentally disturbed in the head. Satis house is an old decaying house, which was turned this way by Miss Havishams neglect. When Pip returns to miss Havishams she takes him into her wedding breakfast room. There is a rotting cake in the middle of the table. This sums up Miss Havishams life perfectly. Forgotten and Mouldy. Another thing that is made out to be strange is that all the clocks have been stopped at twenty to nine. This makes it sound like her life has been frozen in time, as she also wore one shoe, half her veil was arranged and she still wore a decaying wedding dress. This makes the readers believe that she has frozen time at that exact point. Miss Havisham plays an important part in the Novel as she leads pip into believing that she was his benefactor because he believed that she was rearing him for Estella when in fact it was the convict (Magwitch). Miss Havishams character at the beginning of the novel is made out to be cruel and heartless, however later on in the novel she turns over a new leaf and begs for Pip’s forgiveness just before she is burnt to death. Charles Dickens explores the theme of sin and forgiveness in the novel. Throughout the novel some of the people who have sinned tried to redeem themselves the other people who have sinned haven’t. In addition, Dickens explores the theme of what is a gentle man. Compyson Who jilted Miss Havisham and manipulated Magwitch into doing his dirty work was considered a gentle man whereas Joe Gargery took in pip even though he was not related to him in any way took Pip in and gave him an apprenticeship at the forge was not considered a gentle man because he had to work for a living. Dickens explores many themes in the Novel. The main one being the effects on people after a bad experience. In this case this is through Miss Havisham. Miss Havisham dearly loved Compeyson and she cast away most of her family who forewarned her that he was trouble, But she ignored them all and when she got jilted by him on her wedding day she realised that her family were right. After this Miss Havisham adopted Estella so she could raise her up to be invulnerable to the effects of society were in actual fact she was more vulnerable when she grew up. Miss Havisham also raised her up to ‘break the hearts’ of men. This in a way is revenge for what Compeyson put Miss Havisham Through. Another theme in the novel is sin and forgiveness. In Victorian society many people went to church so many people believed in Heaven and Hell. Throughout the novel many people sin. Magwitch, Compeyson, Miss Havisham Orlick and many more. Some of these people try to redeem themselves like Magwitch who became a secret benefactor to Pip. ‘I sleep rough so you can sleep smooth’ also Miss Havisham realises that that she has destroyed two people’s lives. She tries to redeem herself by grovelling to Pip. ‘Oh what have I done’ she also explains what she did to Estella ‘I stole her heart and put ice in its place.’ This shows that Miss Havisham realised how she has raised her to be cruel, emotionless, and how she destroyed Estella’s life. Other people, who sinned, like Compeyson, were killed in a most horrific way. Drowning in a river while having a fight with Magwitch killed Compeyson. Over all Miss Havisham started in the novel to be a cruel, perverted character however towards the end of the novel she redeems herself by begging for Pips forgiveness.

Management of Personnel from Different Ethnic and Cultural Backgrounds

Management of Personnel from Different Ethnic and Cultural Backgrounds Different cultures have varying perspectives. Some perspectives and attributes can affect the operations and performances of an organization (Kossek, Lobel, Brown, 2006, p.58). For example, some cultural practices and attributes can dictate what to do and what not to do. Companies should focus on managing this diversity in people for the betterment of giving a good value to the operations of the company (Aghazadeh, 2004, p.522).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Management of Personnel from Different Ethnic and Cultural Backgrounds specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More According to Anca and Vazquez (2007, p. 13), companies should focus on identifying dominant as well as rising values in the people. These values should be enhanced for the betterment of maintaining cohesiveness. This cohesiveness in workplace is vital for organizational performance. Hospitality industry provides a perfect means of effective management of div ersity in workplace. This is because this industry attracts employees from diverse backgrounds (Maxwell, McDougall, Blair, 2000, p. 368). This is as opposed to regional companies whose workplace staff is likely to be from one region. Hotels and restaurants are most visible in hospitality industries. The paper looks at ways and means of managing workplace diversity in an international hotel. There are some difficulties that are associated with management of workplace diversity, especially diversity based on culture (Child, 1993, p.10). There also exist a number of benefits accrued out of management of workplace diversity. This paper discusses a number of benefits that are attached to management of workplace cultural diversity in a hotel. Management of this diversity can optimize user experience (Maxwell, McDougall, Blair, 2000, p.369). It is possible to facilitate exchanges of cultures among people in an organization. Management of this diversity can help in identifying as well as removing barriers associated with equal opportunities. Workplace diversity can enhance team performance and operations of the organization when it is managed well. It can encourage the employees to enhance their talents and provide an opportunity for managers to retain the talents (Kossek, Lobel, Brown, 2006). Holden (2002, p. 95) writes that management of cultural diversity in workplace is the same as managing innovative knowledge. People in the organization have different talents, the same way they have different cultural perspectives. Management of talent ensures that performance of organizational operations is enhanced. In countries such as China, cultural influences on performance are huge (Holden, 2002, p. 158).Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More There are some means of managing this workplace diversity in the organization. Phillip (2006, p. 36) lists some of m eans as enhancing a psychological contract, enhancing personal motivations, giving referrals to the employees and building employment relationships plus confidence in employees. This paper specifically analyzes management of recruitments and utilizations of people and personnel from different ethnic and cultural backgrounds. A typical international hotel has people from the whole world visiting and spending some nights in it. For this therefore, the kind of employees in the organization to serve these people must be well trained. They must be thinking on the same line so as not to cause confusion to the visitors. The cultures of these people must be enhanced and given an organizational outlook. This is where cultures belonging to the employees are directed to have similarity with organizational policy (Mwaura, Sutton, Roberts, 1998, p.215). There are however various difficulties that come with various practices of managing workplace diversity. Management of workplace diversity in a n international hotel Diversity in cultures in a hotel is a major factor. According to Deresky (2002, p. 34), management of diversity in culture in an international hotel or restaurant provides a classic example of international human resource management. The same way an organization can put measures of managing people from different countries is the same way an organization can manage people of varying cultural and religious backgrounds (Grà ¶schl, 2011, p.226). Two most popular areas of management of diversity are in recruitments and utilizing people from different backgrounds. Recruitment as an area of management of diversity Recruitment in an organization is a way of adding human resource in the organization. It helps the company add to potentiality of performing in the competitive market. For an international hotel, recruitment is a way of adding human resource and knowledge in the company to manage visitors in the hotel/restaurant (Grà ¶schl, 2011, p. 230). Recruitment is cr itical and should be done with utmost care. The company has a choice to either put people of homogenous backgrounds or people of diverse cultural backgrounds (Ward Kennedy, 1992). A well thought out recruitment process is capable of putting committed employees in the organization. Committed employees would put a working staff that is loyal to the management.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Management of Personnel from Different Ethnic and Cultural Backgrounds specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More According to Healey (2002, p. 22), management of diversity is a crucial way of managing cohesiveness in an organization. This cohesiveness helps in removing some common barriers that come with organizational management (Iverson, 2000, p.8). A workforce that does not operate from one front is capable of developing some conflicts. These conflicts can affect the performance of the organization. For an international hotel, group co nflicts can alter how people and especially visitors value the organization. This cohesiveness and elimination of group conflicts can only be done if the recruitment process is fair and well balanced. Strategies of managing cultural diversity in recruitment for competitive advantage External recruitment for cultural diversity Price (2005, p. 570) qualifies external recruitment as the best form of recruitment in managing diversity. In a study involving 29 heads of departments in a health care provision center, use of external recruitment method was noted as the best. External recruitment is pitted against getting employees from relatives and friends of organizational employees (Jeremy, 2004, p.159). Price (2005, p. 570) notes that 21 of the participants supported this kind of recruitment on the basis that it will give fair representation in terms of cultural and religious diversity. Soliciting workforce amongst members of the workforce would mean that the kind of cultures in the empl oyees would be increased. In a hospitality industry, getting people outside makes the organization have a pool of cultures. Competitive advantage comes when a pool of talents is brought into the organization through different cultures in the organization (Iverson, 2000, p.8). Agency recruitment for cultural diversity Price (2005, p. 568) adds that external recruitment is largely carried out by agencies. The agencies carry out advertisements for available jobs and conduct interviews. Zanoni and Janssens (2007, p. 1386) write that agency recruitment is recognized as ideal form of recruitment. In study involving minority employees in the organization in terms of cultures, it was discovered that the use of agency recruitment goes for diversity in areas such as culture, religion and experience. This is opposed to using human resource department in the organization to get people.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Such a case may prompt employing people who are favored by some people in the organization and so resulting to homogenous kind of organizational culture (Jeremy, 2004, p.160). Utilization of personnel from different backgrounds Cox and Blake (1999, p. 53) write that there are some positive and negative issues that come with taking people from varying cultural backgrounds. However, it is recognized that utilizing people from varying cultural backgrounds is beneficial for enhancing balanced organizational performance (Cox and Blake, 1999, p. 53). It has become a trend in international management especially in considering people from different countries. Utilization of people from diverse cultural backgrounds is a way of management of competition in the company. This is because with diverse people, there are diverse talents (Cox and Blake, 1999, p. 45). The contemporary globalization trends, especially the business trends are making organizational managers turn to differences in cultur al backgrounds in the organization. Utilizing people who come from different backgrounds is beneficial because it makes the organization have a fair image among its publics. Wetherell (2008, p. 46) adds on this and writes that an organization that is full of homogenous people in terms of cultural backgrounds maintains the status quo. However, an organization that utilizes people of different backgrounds is capable of improving in performances. This is because there would be multiple talents carried by people of different backgrounds. Strategies of utilizing people of diverse cultural backgrounds Selective training opportunities for competitive advantage Lau (2006, p. 300) uses the example of preferential trainings for parents in hospitals by use of cultural adaptations. Some training is more adapted to particular cultures than others. In a hospitality organization, some communities or cultures are more suited to some professions than others. Lau (2006, p. 300) notes that adaptabilit y is not the same in various cultures. For example, there are some communities known for customer service while others are known for manual operations. This is good for gaining a competitive niche. Some people would be used for capturing the market in some ways or means while other communities would be used for other ways. However, all trainings should be evidences from parent training. John Wiley publication , 13(4), 295-310. Maxwell, G, McDougall, M, Blair, S. (2000) Managing diversity in the hotel sector: the emergence of a service quality opportunity. Managing Service Quality , 10(6), 367-73. Morden, T. (1995) National culture and culture of organizations. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management , 2(2), 3-12. Mwaura, G, Sutton, J, Roberts, D. (1998) Corporate and national culture an irreconcilable dilemma for the hospitality manager? International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management , 10(6),212-220. Philip, G. (1996) Managing workforce diversity a respo nse to skill shortages? Journal of Health Manpower Management , 22 (6), 34 -37. Price, E. (2005) The role of cultural diversity climate in recruitment, promotion, and retention of faculty in academic medicine. Journal of general internal medicine , 20(7), 565-571. Ralston, F. (1995) Hidden Dynamics: How Emotions Affect Business Performance and How You Can Harness Their Power for Positive Results. New York, NY, American Management Association. Schein, E. (1980) Organizational Psychology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice-Hall. Umans, T. (2009) Research angels on cultural diversity in top management teams. Journal of problems and perspectives in management , 7(1), 90-101. Uwaje, A. (2009) Culture shock, Re-Integration and Re-Entry culture shock Managing Cultural, from Munich Business School. Web. Ward, C, Kennedy, A. (1992) Locus of control, mood disturbance and social difficulty during cross-cultural transitions. International Journal of Intercultural Relations , 16(2),175-94. Wethere ll, M. (2008) Identity, Ethnicity, Diversity and Community Cohesion. Singapore, Sage Publications. Zanoni, P, Janssens, M. (2007) Minority employees engaging with (diversity) management: An analysis of control, agency, and micro-emancipation. Journal of management studies , 44(8), 1371-1397.

Standard Business Questions in English

Standard Business Questions in English There are a number of standard business questions used when making generally inquires into the nature of a company. The following dialogue covers a number of standard business questions. The reference section then provides variations and related business questions for a number of the standard business questions used in the dialogue. Business Reporter Thank you for taking the time to meet with me today. Manager: Its my pleasure Business Reporter: Who do you work for? Manager: I work for Springco. Business Reporter: What does Springco do? Manager: Springoco distributes health products throughout the United States. Business Reporter: Where is the company based? Manager: Springco is located in Vermont. Business Reporter: How many people do you employ? Manager: Currently, we have 450 people on staff. Business Reporter: Whats your annual revenue? Manager: Our gross revenue is about $5.5. million this year. Business Reporter: What type of distribution services do you provide? Manager: We distribute to both wholesale and retail outlets. Business Reporter: What sort of internet presence do you have? Manager: We have a storefront, as well as an online forum. Business Reporter: Is your company public? Manager: No, we are a privately held company. Business Reporter: What type of logistical structure do you have? Manager: We ship from four regional warehouses. Business Reporter: Where are your products manufactured? Manager: Most of our products are manufactured abroad, but a number are also produced here in the United States. Standard Business Questions Who do you work for? Variations: Which company do you work for? Where do you work? Related Questions: What kind of job do you have? What do you do? What are your responsibilities? What does X do? Variations: What kind of business does X do? Which business is X in? Related Questions: What type of products does X sell/manufacture/produce? What type of services does X provide/offer? Where is the company based? Variations: Where is your company located? Where are your headquarters? Related Questions: Where do you have branches? Do you have any offices abroad? How many people do you employ? Variations: How many people does X employ? How many people does X have on staff? How many employees are there at X? Related Questions: How many divisions are there? How many people are on staff in that branch? How many people do you employ in (City)? Whats your annual revenue? Variations: Whats your turnover? What type of revenue do you do? Related Questions: Whats your net profit? What are (were) your quarterly earnings? What type of a margin do you have? Is your company public? Variations: Are you a publicly traded company? Are you on the stock market? Is your company privately held? Related Questions: Whats your companys stock symbol? Which market are you traded on? Where are your products manufactured? Variations: Where are your goods produced? Where do you manufacture/produce your merchandise?

Biography of Bobby Seale, Black Panther Party Co-founder

Biography of Bobby Seale, Black Panther Party Co-founder Bobby Seale (born October 22, 1936) co-founded the Black Panther Party with Huey P. Newton. The organization, which was the most well-known group launched during the black power movement, stood out for its free breakfast program and emphasis on self-defense- a departure from the nonviolent philosophy advocated by civil rights activists. Fast Facts: Bobby Seale Known For: Co-founder, along with Huey P. Newton, of the Black Panther PartyBorn: October 22, 1936 in Dallas, TexasParents: George and Thelma SealeEducation: Merritt Community CollegeSpouse(s): Artie Seale, Leslie M. Johnson-SealeChildren: Malik Seale, Jaime SealeNotable Quote: â€Å"You dont fight racism with racism, the best way to fight racism is with solidarity. Early Life and Education Bobby Seale, the first child of George and Thelma Seale, was born on October 22, 1936. He grew up with a brother (Jon), a sister (Betty), and a first cousin (Alvin Turner- the son of his mother’s identical twin). In addition to Dallas, the family lived in other Texas cities, including San Antonio. Seales parents had a rocky relationship, separating and reconciling repeatedly. The family struggled financially and sometimes rented out parts of their home to other families to earn additional income. Seales father, George, was a carpenter who once built a home from the ground up. He was also physically abusive; Bobby Seale later described being whipped with a belt by his father at age 6. When the family moved to California, George Seale struggled to get carpentry work or join a union, as unions often excluded African Americans during the Jim Crow era. When George Seale did manage to enter a union, he was one of just of three black men in the state with union membership, according to Seale. As a teenager, Seale hauled groceries and mowed lawns to earn extra cash. He attended Berkeley High School but dropped out to sign up for the US Air Force in 1955. After a conflict with a commanding officer, Seale was dishonorably discharged. However, this setback did not deter him. He earned his high school diploma and made a living as a sheet metal mechanic for aerospace companies. He also worked as a comedian. In 1960, Seale enrolled in Merritt College, where he joined a black student group and his political consciousness took hold. Two years later, he met Huey P. Newton, the man with whom he would start the Black Panthers. Founding the Black Panther Party At a 1962 demonstration against the Kennedy Administrations naval blockade of Cuba, Seale befriended Huey Newton. Both men found inspiration in black radical Malcolm X and were devastated when he was assassinated in 1965. The next year, they decided to form a group to reflect their political beliefs, and the Black Panthers were born. The organization reflected Malcolm X’s philosophy of self-defense by any means necessary. The idea of armed African Americans proved controversial in the broader United States, but as the civil rights movement waned following the assassination of the Rev. Martin Luther King Jr., many young black Americans leaned towards radicalism and militancy. The Black Panthers were particularly concerned about racism in the Oakland Police Department, but before long, Panthers chapters sprang up nationwide. The Black Panther Party became most well known for their 10-point plan and free breakfast program. The 10-point plan included culturally-relevant teaching, employment, shelter, and exemption from military service for African Americans. Legal Battles In 1968, Bobby Seale and seven other protesters were charged with conspiring to incite a riot at the Democratic National Convention in Chicago. When the trial date arrived, Seales lawyer was ill and unable to appear; the judge denied the request to delay the trial. Seale claimed the right to defend himself in order to advocate for his own constitutional rights, but the judge did not allow him to give an opening statement, cross-examine witnesses, or speak to the jury. Seale contended that the judge had denied him his right to counsel, and he began to speak out in protest during the proceedings. In response, the judge ordered him bound and gagged. Seale was chained (later strapped) to a chair, with his mouth and jaw strapped shut, for several days of the trial. Ultimately, the judge sentenced Seale to four years in prison for contempt of court. That sentence was later overturned, but it did not mark the end of Seale’s legal troubles. In 1970, Seale and another defendant were tried for killing a Black Panther believed to be a police informant. The hung jury resulted in a mistrial, so Seale was not convicted of the 1969 murder. As his court battles unfolded, Seale wrote a book tracing the history of the Black Panthers. The book, published in 1970, was titled Seize the Time: The Story of the Black Panther Party and Huey P. Newton. But the time Seale spent behind bars awaiting the outcomes of various court cases had taken a toll on the group, which began to fall apart in his absence. The settling of the court cases saw Seale take charge of the Panthers again. In 1973, he changed focus by putting his bid in to become the mayor of Oakland. He placed second in the race. He left the Panthers the following year. In 1978, he wrote his autobiography, A Lonely Rage. Later Years In the 1970s, the black power movement subsided, and groups like the Black Panthers ceased to exist. Deaths, prison sentences, and internal conflicts spurred by initiatives like the FBI’s Counterintelligence Program played a role in the unraveling process. Bobby Seale remains politically active, giving talks on his life and activism at college campuses and other venues. More than 50 years after the Black Panthers formed, the group continues to influence politics, pop culture, and activism. Sources â€Å"Bobby Seale.† PBS.org.Bennett, Kitty. Bobby Seale: Black Panther leader was one of the Chicago Eight. AARP Bulletin, 27 August, 2010.Glass, Andrew. Kennedy imposes naval blockade of Cuba, Oct. 22, 1962. Politico, 22 October, 2009.Seale, Bobby. â€Å"Seize the Time: The Story of the Black Panther Party.† 1970.

Explain and discuss the ways in which sociology and Psychology can Essay

Explain and discuss the ways in which sociology and Psychology can help provide a better understanding of Health and Health care - Essay Example In order to provide an in-depth knowledge, let us define first sociology, psychology, health, and health care. Sociology is derived from the Latin word socius meaning companion and the Greek word logus meaning study of (Taylor & Field, 2007, p. 3). As a discipline, sociology is the social scientific study of society including the interactions between people and society and the influence they imposed on each other (Hyde, Lohan & McDonnell, 2004, p. 3). On the other hand, psychology refers to the scientific study of human behavior which includes how an organism act, think, feel, learn, perceive, interact with others and understand themselves (Barkway, 2009, p. 2). Health is a holistic discipline and is defined by the World Health Organization in 1946 as â€Å" a state of physical and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease and infirmity† and health care refers to the delivery of health services of health professionals to achieve state of equilibrium (Harari & Leg ge, 2001, p. 2). Understanding the role of sociology and psychology to health and health care doesn’t end in knowing the core definition but rather, by careful analysis of the underlying principles, perspectives, alternative explanations, issues, influence on human behavior and general implications on the population to determine and entail the relationship between psychology, sociology, health, and health care. Human Behavior in Health Care Settings In a health care setting, health providers deal with people of different behavior and beliefs. Most of these people have complicated illnesses and behavioral reactions toward health care delivery and settings vary. Human behavior towards health care settings depends on several factors. It may be political, social, economic, and environment. There are culturally held beliefs about illness, disease prevention, treatments, as well as appropriate health behaviors and identification of the sick role. Health care providers must be aware of a person’s cultural norms to avoid culture shock and must start at the most basic level to foster health-promoting behaviors towards health care. Let us take the example of human behavior with regards to counseling in a health care setting. People may imagine the scenario as two individuals facing each other. Most of the times, patients behave in a way to show their feelings and being uncomfortable at closeness but there are also individuals who feel comfortable about this closeness and likely behave to confide in a health care staff and asks questions. In some instances, patient’s find it comfortable to verbalize their feelings and reasons of their behavior with the health care professional informally, checking their intravenous infusion or massaging them, rather than the formal set-up which is a one-on-one basis, facing each other (Barkway, 2009, p. 155). Human behaviors directly affect the status of health care. Negative human behaviors such as distrust in healt h care

Leadeship Styes and Ethics for Law Enforcement Administrators Research Paper

Leadeship Styes and Ethics for Law Enforcement Administrators - Research Paper Example Leaders in the law enforcement agencies should themselves exercise high ethical standards which would then influence the followers to follow suit. The issue of ethical leadership has never been so relevant in law enforcing than it is today given the current issues of corruption, racial discrimination, violence and brutality and other escalating criminal activities. Given this chaotic nature of our streets, it is possible that law enforcers feel only connected to their ethical and professional obligations in theory, but on the ground, such ethics is thrown through the window due to the unpredictable and complex situations. This is where ethical leadership comes in to constantly offer training and guidance to the followers and encourage them always to remain within the boundaries of ethical standards and professional code of conduct governing the service. Leadership is an appreciated topic in all types of organizations, both private and public and is considered an essential component in the steering of organizational goals and objectives. Law enforcement agencies have also endeavored to institute effective leaders within its ranks due to the realization that quality leadership directly affects the quality of performance. Leadership can be taken to mean the process where a person or groups of persons selects, trains, and influences one or more followers to appreciate and agree to what needs to be done to realize the mission and objectives of the organization (Lussier & Achua, 2012). This, as Lussier & Achua (2012) notes, can be achieved by such leaders through humbly conveying a prophetic vision for the future of an organization in a manner that respects and identifiable with the beliefs and values of the followers. According to Lussier & Achua (2012), leadership has several key components which include: Leadership is a process that t akes

Factory System Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Factory System - Essay Example The Factory System as it is known today when we refer to the onset of the industrial age of modern day England was the use of machinery for mass production (Boyson, 1970, pp. 34 - 52). Former cottage based industries or rather production that took place in the homes, cottages, hut (any form of residence of the workers) or any type of production that took place prior to the 1780s were moved to a centralized location that came to be known as a "factory". This was mainly caused due to the introduction of machinery for the production and manufacture of goods at the turn of the nineteenth century and since machines were too large to be housed in cottages of the workers and since it was too costly to provide each worker with an individual machine and also since several workers were necessary to operate one machine alone, the only option that was left to owners of the machinery were to house the machinery in a large buildings and have the workers manufacture the products in the "factory" un der the strict supervision of the machinery owners or supervisors who were hand picked by the owners (Thompson, 1967, pp. 81 - 93). Due to this centralization of labour and machinery, there was much migration from the villages to the industrial hubs in the country and thereby began the "factory system". And this migration from the village to the cities or the industrial centres were apparent in the early part of the nineteenth century The Impact of the Factory System on the Labour The onset of the factory system had many different impacts on the labour force, these impacts were both good and bad. By bringing workers under one roof it was easier for owners to supervise and manage the manufacture of products, they were also able to ensure that work was not duplicated and it was carried out in the most efficient manner possible. Also it was the factory system that was the cause of the development of modern day management theory through the studies that were carried out by individuals like Fredrick Taylor and others. By bringing labour under one roof the owners were able to discipline the staff appropriately and especially they were able to ensure that productivity was high, therefore as owners of the machinery they stood to gain a great deal. In the case of the workers the benefits and disadvantages that they faced were quite mixed. While the factory system gave them a steady income, living in such close quarters with so many different individuals, living in unsanitary conditions as the big cities turned out to be due to the convergence of workers and working in very unhealthy environments that were often inadequately lit up and ventilated caused much disease and also created an unsafe environment where workers were often prone to succumb to fatal accidents. While some opponents of the factory system insist that the machinery imposed discipline on the workers the author of this paper begs to differ on

Processing-structure-property relationships in (TPE-E) nanocomposites Research Proposal

Processing-structure-property relationships in (TPE-E) nanocomposites - Research Proposal Example Iwahori, Ishiwata and Ishikawa (2003) argue that an understanding of the basic physical relationship in nano scale structural variables and micro scale properties of polymer nanocomposites is very important in this study. The development of polymer nanocomposites optimally using carbon nanotube and carbon nano fibre requires full comprehension of the processing structure property relationships. Aims of the Research The aim of the research is to develop improved materials properties in TPE-E nanocomposites using the processing structure property relationships. The research will develop the following objectives which will be investigated: 1. To optimally disperse the nanofillers into the TPE-E via melt processing and reactive extrusion (Nanocomposite processing). 2. To develop a complete understanding of thee processing morphology properties in the nanocomposite system, most importantly the interplay between TPE-E nanophase domains and an engineered low and high aspect ratio nanofiller s (morphology and properties) 3. To comprehensively determine the mechanical and electrical performance of these nanocomposites. Literature Review According to Kotsilkova (2005) and Dobrzai (2002), an overview of the synthesis and characterization methods of nanocomposite is important in clay layer orientation and its dispersion in various nanocomposites. Many previous researches have tried to relate the clay orientation to the enhancement of materials properties from a qualitative viewpoint. Quantitative studies are may be limited because of lack of techniques to quantitatively determine the three dimensional orientation of structures in nanocomposites. In one of the recent developed techniques of determining the three dimensional orientation, the effect of compatibilizer concentration upon the orientation and dispersion of structures in polyethylene nanocomposite films was found to be thickness. An increase in concentration showed a corresponding decrease in orientation of clay la yer along the thickness of the film (Bevis 1999; Suprakas, Kazuaki & Masami 2003; Liu, Hoa & Pugh 2004). Other researchers have explored ways of using commercially available products to create new materials by synthesising TPE-E to register a wide range of property improvements. The TPE-E synthesis may comprise melt compounding and reactive extrusion using organic clays as nanofillers. Hybrid composition morphology within nanocomposites, when treated in various processes, demonstrates the maximum range of properties of materials. The various methods of attaining a wide range of property enhancements are the organo clay nanofiller surface modification, additional processing parameter and the TPE-E hard and soft segment composition ratio together with the organ clay filler aspect. These material properties are governed by the manipulation of these variables and assessing the sizes of intercalate molecules (Laird & Fleming 1999; Mani et al. 2005). Colbert and Smalley (2002) argue that many other studies have focused on the microstructure processing and property relationships, which have helped in knowledge development and comprehensive understanding of these processes to develop more innovative products both for personal and commercial purposes. Hytrel products

Do Socially-Responsible Mutual Funds Perform better than Conventional Research Paper

Do Socially-Responsible Mutual Funds Perform better than Conventional Mutual Funds - Research Paper Example In addition, it includes incorporation of local communities in order to further its aim to achieve its goals (Schepers, 2009). Socially responsible investment has for years been viewed as the practice for individuals who are interested in social change and who aim to yield much profit at the end. There was a time when it was hard or difficult to establish a socially responsible portfolio that was competitive on market because the socially responsible investing universe was not large. But that is the past since time have changed in that in modern day there are more than 100 mutual funds that incorporate social screens in their management decisions which aim to improve their profits. Investors are in a position to create portfolio that is competitive and real to their social concerns. In addition, there exist more direct investment opportunities such as buying certificates of deposits with local or community banks (Vogel, 2006). Mutual funds Mutual funds are said to be investment capit al of distinct type. In this regard, investment fund refers to the variety of investments such as stocks, bonds and other types of funds. Mutual funds are different from most of distinct types of funds present. In this sense, mutual funds are referred to as open-ended meaning that as the number of people investing in the funds rises, the funds also increases its units in the market. Mutual funds concentrate on specific category of investment such as large firms stocks and government bonds of certain Nations. In addition, few of the mutual funds might slightly invest in combination of stocks and bonds in distinct mutual funds. For many years, investing in mutual funds has been viewed as safe mode of investment as it incorporates both individual capitals with many different investors, which makes investors to invest in different types of investment at less cost (Renneboog et al 2008). There are two different types of mutual funds investment namely; socially responsible mutual funds an d conventional mutual funds. The socially responsible mutual funds involve certain factors to consider while making decision concerning the firm to invest in. Socially responsible funds perform better because the funds apply their ownership rights to manipulate management via policy alteration or change suggestions. They ensure that this advocacy is attained through attending shareholders meetings, exercising voting rights in companies, writing letters to top management, and filing proposals. In most scenarios, it is very hard for shareholders to hold and exercise their voting rights. Therefore voting are attained via proxy. Many investors advocate socially responsible funds because they have strict policy that aim to maintain transparency in decisions and disclose all proxy voting procedures, policies and conducting voting rights of its shareholders (Schepers, 2009). On the other hand, the conventional mutual funds is concerned with the prospects and financial performance of firms combined with significant factors while investing. Discussion Over the years, there has been a tremendous increase in the number of socially responsible mutual funds. The issue of social investment has been subject of debate for many years. However, the modern manner of investment has been because of financial crisis that began in 1930s. At that time, there were many issues available

Wilson J (2014) Ward staff experiences of patient death in an acute Essay

Wilson J (2014) Ward staff experiences of patient death in an acute medical setting. Nursing Standard. 28, 37, 37-45 - Essay Example en identified as a qualitative study, the paper will critique the justification of the methodology and research design used, the identification of major concepts, identification of the study’s context, sampling of participants, and auditability of data collection method, creditability of data analysis method, the presentation and transferability of results, and comprehensiveness of the conclusion. According to Caldwell et al (2005: p4), a research title must be concisely, clearly, and accurately written, while also being grammatically correct and brief and reflecting the content and emphasis of the paper. The research article’s title must, therefore, concisely, clearly, and accurately reflects the paper’s content and importance in one sentence. In this case, the title reflects the paper’s context within the hospital ward’s acute medical setting, while also reflecting the importance of the paper with regards to how nurses in these setting react to the death of patients. The job title and qualifications of the author can be used as a useful indicator of the knowledge of the researcher in the area that they are investigating (Caldwell, 2005: p4). The article identifies the author, Janet Wilson, as a senior lecturer at Sheffield Hallam University in the faculty of Health and Wellbeing and has worked for more than thirty years as a healthcare professional (Wilson, 2014: p37). Moreover, she has also worked as a supervisor, counsellor, and group facilitator in supporting bereaved persons, while has also authoring various articles on nursing practitioner roles and the bereavement process, which makes her views on grief especially relevant. Therefore, the qualifications of the author make the research article more reliable and valid. According to Parahoo (2014: p26), research articles should include an abstract that briefly states the purpose/problem of the research, indicates the experimental or theoretical plan utilized, summarizes the key findings, and

Processing-structure-property relationships in (TPE-E) nanocomposites Research Proposal

Processing-structure-property relationships in (TPE-E) nanocomposites - Research Proposal Example Iwahori, Ishiwata and Ishikawa (2003) argue that an understanding of the basic physical relationship in nano scale structural variables and micro scale properties of polymer nanocomposites is very important in this study. The development of polymer nanocomposites optimally using carbon nanotube and carbon nano fibre requires full comprehension of the processing structure property relationships. Aims of the Research The aim of the research is to develop improved materials properties in TPE-E nanocomposites using the processing structure property relationships. The research will develop the following objectives which will be investigated: 1. To optimally disperse the nanofillers into the TPE-E via melt processing and reactive extrusion (Nanocomposite processing). 2. To develop a complete understanding of thee processing morphology properties in the nanocomposite system, most importantly the interplay between TPE-E nanophase domains and an engineered low and high aspect ratio nanofiller s (morphology and properties) 3. To comprehensively determine the mechanical and electrical performance of these nanocomposites. Literature Review According to Kotsilkova (2005) and Dobrzai (2002), an overview of the synthesis and characterization methods of nanocomposite is important in clay layer orientation and its dispersion in various nanocomposites. Many previous researches have tried to relate the clay orientation to the enhancement of materials properties from a qualitative viewpoint. Quantitative studies are may be limited because of lack of techniques to quantitatively determine the three dimensional orientation of structures in nanocomposites. In one of the recent developed techniques of determining the three dimensional orientation, the effect of compatibilizer concentration upon the orientation and dispersion of structures in polyethylene nanocomposite films was found to be thickness. An increase in concentration showed a corresponding decrease in orientation of clay la yer along the thickness of the film (Bevis 1999; Suprakas, Kazuaki & Masami 2003; Liu, Hoa & Pugh 2004). Other researchers have explored ways of using commercially available products to create new materials by synthesising TPE-E to register a wide range of property improvements. The TPE-E synthesis may comprise melt compounding and reactive extrusion using organic clays as nanofillers. Hybrid composition morphology within nanocomposites, when treated in various processes, demonstrates the maximum range of properties of materials. The various methods of attaining a wide range of property enhancements are the organo clay nanofiller surface modification, additional processing parameter and the TPE-E hard and soft segment composition ratio together with the organ clay filler aspect. These material properties are governed by the manipulation of these variables and assessing the sizes of intercalate molecules (Laird & Fleming 1999; Mani et al. 2005). Colbert and Smalley (2002) argue that many other studies have focused on the microstructure processing and property relationships, which have helped in knowledge development and comprehensive understanding of these processes to develop more innovative products both for personal and commercial purposes. Hytrel products

Wilson J (2014) Ward staff experiences of patient death in an acute Essay

Wilson J (2014) Ward staff experiences of patient death in an acute medical setting. Nursing Standard. 28, 37, 37-45 - Essay Example en identified as a qualitative study, the paper will critique the justification of the methodology and research design used, the identification of major concepts, identification of the study’s context, sampling of participants, and auditability of data collection method, creditability of data analysis method, the presentation and transferability of results, and comprehensiveness of the conclusion. According to Caldwell et al (2005: p4), a research title must be concisely, clearly, and accurately written, while also being grammatically correct and brief and reflecting the content and emphasis of the paper. The research article’s title must, therefore, concisely, clearly, and accurately reflects the paper’s content and importance in one sentence. In this case, the title reflects the paper’s context within the hospital ward’s acute medical setting, while also reflecting the importance of the paper with regards to how nurses in these setting react to the death of patients. The job title and qualifications of the author can be used as a useful indicator of the knowledge of the researcher in the area that they are investigating (Caldwell, 2005: p4). The article identifies the author, Janet Wilson, as a senior lecturer at Sheffield Hallam University in the faculty of Health and Wellbeing and has worked for more than thirty years as a healthcare professional (Wilson, 2014: p37). Moreover, she has also worked as a supervisor, counsellor, and group facilitator in supporting bereaved persons, while has also authoring various articles on nursing practitioner roles and the bereavement process, which makes her views on grief especially relevant. Therefore, the qualifications of the author make the research article more reliable and valid. According to Parahoo (2014: p26), research articles should include an abstract that briefly states the purpose/problem of the research, indicates the experimental or theoretical plan utilized, summarizes the key findings, and

From Call My People Home Essay Example for Free

From Call My People Home Essay The poem is about the journey of the narrator. It was not just a simple journey away from home but a joyride of his lifetime. The narrator’s life is simple yet complicated. Though he was just a fisherman at the sea, he has many circumstances that he continues to think of. The author illustrated the narrator’s life and journey in a descriptive way that is why the poem became longer than expected. However, the argument and discussion of the narrator’s life is simple – his difficulty in seeing his family due to his work in the sea as a fisherman but in the end of the poem, he was home at last. For me, I can say that there are many passages or parts of the poem that are difficult to understand but the most difficult is in the first stanza – The snug and round one, warm as a woman / With her stove stocked at night and her lanterns lit. I do not know what the author is trying to say in this part during the first read but as I read it many times, the woman was his boat who seemed to be his own after many years. This boat became his wife and home while he was in the sea to fish for his living. On the other hand, my favorite passage in this poem is in the last stanza – For the last time, watching the naval men / Make a note of her number, take my name. / That was the end of my thirty years at the fishing / And the end of my boat, my home. This part was the most amazing and greatest part for me because it reveals the happiness and sadness of the narrator in these passages. He was happy as he ended his journey at the sea and could be able to rest but sad for it ended his attachment to his wife and home – his boat. Work Cited From Call My People Home

Electrical Bone Growth Stimulator Devices

Electrical Bone Growth Stimulator Devices Nonunion and delayed fractures are prevalent in the United States, accounting for a significant health care cost (Simon Simon, 2008). Bone is able to remodel and adapt to applied loads and electromechanical stimuli (Smeltzer, Bare, Hinkle, Cheever, 2009). One method of repairing these types of fractures is with an electric bone growth stimulator, which has been used for over 25 years. There are three types of electric bone growth stimulators, all of which provide an electric current to the bone that causes the bone cells to grow and proliferate. Treatment with bone growth stimulators shortens the recovery time, however cannot be used for large gaps in the bone (Simon Simon, 2008). Clinical Significance Every year in the United States 7.9 million fractures occur (Goldstein, Sprague, Petrisor, 2010). Approximately 600,000 fractures do not heal properly. Fractures that do not heal properly are usually delayed or nonunion fractures. These fractures require treatment or surgical intervention to heal properly and cost the United States $3 to 6 billion health care dollars each year (Simon Simon, 2008). A delayed union is a fracture that heals very slowly and does not heal within a normal amount of time. Although many factors affect how long it takes for a bone to heal such as which bone is broken and the severity of the fracture, the typical healing time is about three to four months. A delayed union can be caused by several factors including, poor blood supply, not casting the bone properly, and infection (Parker, 2010). Sometimes delayed union fractures can heal on their own without intervention or treatment. A nonunion is a fracture that does not heal within twice the expected healing time, generally six to nine months after the injury. Fibrocartilage also forms between the two pieces of broken bone (Mora, Pedrotti, Galli, 2006). Figure 1 shows a nonunion fracture of the tibia, the fracture is circled in red and you can see some of the fibrocartilage that formed between the two pieces of bone. Several factors that can cause nonunion are poor blood supply, not casting the bone p roperly, infection, and loss of bone or soft tissue (Parker, 2010). A nonunion fracture will not heal on its own and requires some form of intervention. Some of the options for treating nonunion are internal and external fixation devices, bone grafts, bone substitutes, biologics like platelet extracts and bone morphogenic proteins, and biophysical stimulation including ultrasound and electrical stimulation (Simon Simon, 2008). Since the repair of delayed and nonunion fractures requires intervention and treatment, the clinical problem is how to provide an intervention that allows the patient to recover from the injury in the shortest possible amount of time with the fewest complications and the least cost (Simon Simon, 2008). The ideal treatment is to repair the fracture without surgery and hospitalization (Goldstein, Sprague, Petrisor, 2010). Therefore, electrical bone growth stimulators are frequently used to treat delayed and nonunion fractures. Research has shown that electrical stimulation is a prevalent treatment that is utilized to speed up the process of healing in delayed and nonunion fractures. In the United States, electrical bone growth stimulators have treated approximately 400,000 delayed and nonunion fractures (Goldstein, Sprague, Petrisor, 2010). Electrical bone growth stimulators, shown in Figure 2, are therapeutic devices that are used to produce and apply electric fields to bone, similar to the electric fields that occur naturally inside the body but as a result of the injury are either not being produced fast enough or are not being produced at all (Goldstein, Sprague, Petrisor, 2010). Electrical bone growth stimulators have been shown to be 88% effective for treating delayed and nonunion fractures (Nolte, van der Krans, Patka, Janssen, Ryaby, Albers, 2001). The typical treatment time with an electrical bone growth stimulator is between three and six months (Simon Simon, 2008). Biology and Physiology Humans have 206 bones in their body (Smeltzer, Bare, Hinkle, Cheever, 2009). Bone can adapt and remodel as a result of an applied force, an injury or a stimulus. Bone is made up of three types of cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts, which are involved in bone formation and remodeling. Osteoblasts are cells that form bone (Smeltzer, Bare, Hinkle, Cheever, 2009). Osteocytes are formed from osteoblasts and are responsible for maintaining bone, whereas, osteoclasts are cells that absorb bone. These cells play an important role in fracture healing (Smeltzer, Bare, Hinkle, Cheever, 2009). The process of healing a fracture, shown in Figure 3, has four major steps. The first step occurs within hours following the injury and lasts for about a week. During this step, the injury causes increased blood flow and bleeding, causing a hematoma to form. This results in inflammation and swelling (Smeltzer, Bare, Hinkle, Cheever, 2009). The next step begins when fibroblasts reach the injury site then release collagen fibers and form a soft fibrocartilaginous callus between and around the two pieces of bone. The third step begins around week 4, when osteoblasts enter the callus, multiply and begin to form bone. This forms a harder bony callus that eventually turns into bone. The final stage is remodeling which starts around week 17 and continues until the bone is completely healed. During the remodeling stage, the callus is completely turned into bone by the osteoblasts, and the osteoclasts absorb the extra bone that was produced and not needed (Chiras, 2008). Market Trends The market for electrical bone growth stimulators has grown to over $500 million dollars in the last 25 years, and by 2012 the market is expected to rise to $690.1 million (Schenberger, 2007). The consumers of electrical bone growth stimulators are hospitals, orthopedic surgeons and patients with a delayed or nonunion bone fracture. Electrical bone growth stimulators have been used to treat 400,000 fractures (Simon Simon, 2008). These devices can be both invasive and noninvasive. The typical cost for a noninvasive electrical bone growth stimulator is between $3000 and $7000 and can increase to $20,000 for an invasive stimulator that requires two surgeries (Morone Feuer, 2003). Insurance will cover the cost of the device as long as the patient meets certain criteria, for example the gap between the bones must be less than 1 centimeter (CIGNA , 2010). This cost is much less than the approximately $27,000 cost for surgery and hospitalization after a procedure such as internal fixation (Hughes Anglen, 2010). Seven companies have received FDA approval (U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 2010) and the five companies that have electric bone growth stimulators on the market are Orthofix, Biomet, DJ Orthopedics (acquired the company Orthologic), Smith and Nephew and DePuy Spine (medcompare, 2010). The only company that has received FDA approval (U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 2010) and that has invasive electric bone growth stimulators on the market is Biomet (medcompare, 2010). Some of the noninvasive stimulators are shown in Figure 4 and two of the invasive stimulators from Biomet are shown in Figure 5. Bioelectric Principles Bone that goes through effective growth or repair holds an electronegative potential compared to that of resting bone (Glazer Glazer, 2001). In bone where a break or fracture has occurred with nonunion or delayed union, it has been found helpful to introduce electric stimuli to the area undergoing complications. The introduction of an electrical current allows the process of bone regeneration to reinitiate. The electrically charged particles within the current act as the missing catalyst for the necessary chemical reactions to stimulate the desired biological response of bone repair at the site of nonunion. Pulsed electrical stimulation can cause changes in the intracellular level of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and thus triggers DNA synthesis within cells (Somjen, Fischler, Binderman, 1984). The electrical current excites the Na+/K+ pump of mesenchymal osteoblasts, which causes them to differentiate into osteoblasts that produce a woven matrix of bone (Shapiro, 2008).The electronegative current (DNA synthesis) applied at the surface of the fracture site or at the surface of the skin initiates endochondral bone formation the synthesis of cartilage, closely followed by bone formation (Shapiro, 2008). Bone naturally generates an electrical field because of Wolffs Law and piezoelectric properties, which is what the electric bone growth stimulators are also based off of. Wolffs law states that bone changes its external shape and internal (cancellous) architecture in response to stresses acting on it (Hunt, 2008). Piezoelectricity (Figure 6) is the stress-generated potentials in bone in which the side of the bone under mechanical compression [becomes] electronegative and the side under tension [becomes] electropositive (Kim, Won-Ki, Sung Jac, 1984). The mineral matrix in bone is piezoelectric because of the applied force to the skeletal system from tension (resting bone), and it changes its charge when the bone is under mechanical compression (bone repair/hematoma). The electric field produces electric potentials that cause the bone cells to grow and proliferate (Kim, Won-Ki, Sung Jac, 1984). Electrical stimulation creates an increased regulation of osteoinductive growth factors as well as enhancing osteoblastic activity, and decreasing osteoclastic activity through electrochemical reactions. This all leads to the desired reactions of increased bone formation and repair. The electrical stimulation increases the transmembrane calcium translocation, which activates calmodulin, a calcium binding protein involved in inflammation (Hematoma). Electric stimuli also brings about the upregulation of BMP-2, BMP-6, BMP-7, and the BMP receptor ALK-2, which are all bone morphogenic proteins needed to promote bone regeneration (Gan, Fredericks, Glazer, 2004). At the cathode of the Electric Bone Growth Stimulator, when the electric impulse is applied, three things happen: 1) the local oxygen concentration decreases, causing an increase in the biological process of bone growth, 2) the pH level increases, resulting in a decrease of osteoclastic function, and 3) the release of hydrogen pe roxide causing macrophages to release VEGF, which stimulates the growth of blood vessels in the area of injury. These growth factors enter the tissue matrix and trigger proliferation and differentiation which causes bone to form, thus increasing the healing rate of delayed union or nonunion (Gan, Fredericks, Glazer, 2004). History Device History The history of Bone Electric Growth Stimulators dates back to the late 1780s when the biologist, Luigi Galvani used electricity on a biological system. Galvani discovered that a frog could generate muscle spasms throughout its body when an electrical charge was applied to its spinal cord. Alessandro Volta, a colleague of Galvanis, was able to reproduce these (SilcoTek, 2010). The first documentation of electrical stimulation being used to heal fractures was in 1841 by Dr. Hartshorne, when he reported that a patient with a tibial nonunion was treated with electricity. In 1850, the scientist R. W. Lente was the first to report successful use of Galvanic currents used to treat patients with nonunion. In 1892, the German scientist Wolff was the first to describe how bone formed in response to stress; this description became known as Wolffs Law (Glazer Glazer, 2001). The significant gains of healing with electrical stimulation in the 17 1800s ends with Wolffs phenomenon description of bone formation. The modern theories that the Electric Bone Growth Stimulators are based off of are from the work that Iwao Yasuda and his colleagues found in the 1950s. In 1938 Yasuda started researching electrical stimulation of square wave to organic substance at Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine (Crenshaw, 1977). In 1953, Yasuda et al discovered that bone in compression was electronegative, and bone in tension was electropositive (Glazer Glazer, 2001). From 1962 to 1964, the scientists Friedenberg and Brighton furthered Yasudas research and discovered that bone that is growing or repairing itself shows and electronegative potential, while bone that is not has an electropositive potential. This discovery has encouraged others to research electrical stimuli in relation bone regeneration (Glazer Glazer, 2001). In 1975, Dr. McElhannon published a report stating the technology used to treat fractures in humans with electrical stimulation is not yet advanced enough to promote bone regeneration, but shows promise in animals (Meadows, 2008). Two years later, Dr. Paterson et al performed an experimental model on delayed union fractures of the tibia in adult dogs. The model showed an accelerated healing time where Osteogenesis was normal, and no other abnormalities were found (Meadows, 2008). In 1978, the FDA approved the use of external bone growth stimulators (Haverbush, 2005). In 1983, Dr. Hanaoka performed a study observing the effects of pulsed micro-electrical currents on internal remodeling in long tubular bone and bone healing (Meadows, 2008). A group of 14 dogs had electrodes inserted into the femora with pulsed micro-electrical currents applied to the right femora for four weeks. The dogs were split into groups and each group had different electrical currents (Hz) applied. The results s howed that bone healing in all cases was promoted (Meadows, 2008). Dr. Ahl et al, in 1984, used a semi invasive technique for bone healing on 23 patients with nonunion. Ten of those had solid bone regeneration, and the other 13 did not fully unite these were later determined to have been breaks that were too far apart (Meadows, 2008). In 1985, Dr. Kondo performed a study on the femur of dogs. The bones in the experimental group observed proliferation of osteoblasts on the third day, which transitioned into bone remodeling and a shortened healing time by the end of the third week (Meadows, 2008). In 1995, Dr. Zamora-Navas et al performed a study on 22 patients with nonunion, with a gap of 0.5 or more, using capacitively-coupled electrical signal for a treatment time of about 26 weeks. In the end, over 70% of the 22 had solid bone union if the gap was 1 cm or smaller (Meadows, 2008). In 1996, the FDA approved the use of Electrical Bone Growth Stimulators, both invasive and noninvasiv e. Patent History On May 31, 1977, Dr. Levys bone generating device was approved. The stimulator produced electrical pulses applied to the bone, as opposed to direct current potential, to make the bone grow faster and stronger (Levy, 1977). The device is invasive, and is made of materials that will not poison or react with the surrounding tissue or bone (Levy, 1977). On November 15, 1983, Hirshorn et al had their patent approved on their implantable bone growth stimulator that uses a direct current output, and constantly transmits pulsed electromagnetic energy to the injury site. The output of energy(rate) is directly proportional to the set current. To make sure that the device is not affected by the pulsing of the transmission, a coil was placed inside the device to deliver a constant current. The device is enclosed in a titanium case, and has a longer shelf life due to an electrical switch that was placed inside the device (Hirshorn, Swift, Evans, 1983). On My 19, 1987, Dr. Campbells patent was approved. His stimulator was circuit adapted, and relied on the tissue (bone) to act as the load to make the circuit work. The storage device controlled the oscillator circuit, which in turn controlled the charge of the current that was issued from the battery and applied directly to the bone at the fracture site (Campbell, 1987). On May 9, 1995, Kronbergs stimulator was approved. This device was a non-invasive device that used low alternating currents applied to the patients skin. This particular device is battery powered and was found to generate the electrical characteristics found in bones naturally that generate normal bone growth (Kronberg, 1995). On June 16, 1998, Dr. Ericksons electric bone stimulator was approved. His stimulator came with a hand-held device which transmitted, and received, signals to the implanted stimulator (Erickson, Tepper, Thacker, Varrichio, Pilla, 1995). On August 2, 2007, Dr. Nyezs invasive stimulator was approved. The device is controlled by an external remote that sends a wireless signal to the stimulator. The current is circuitry controlled. It was made to be coupled with a hip prosthesis to help with healing and proper function, but can be used to stimulate healthy bone growth in areas of injury (Nyez, 2007). Device Theory In 1953, surgeon Iwao Yasuda first demonstrated that callus could be created by applying electric fields to bone (Figure 8). His experiment consisted of wrapping wire around a rabbitt femur and sending a small (1 uA) current to the anode, away from the bone. After three weeks of continuous current, Yasuda observed that a callus-typically generated during fracture repair- was beginning to form in the direction of the current (Liboff, 2006). There are three types of electric bone growth stimulators. They are categorized based on invasiveness and type of current. Table 1 gives a brief description of the different devices. Note that there are only two types listed, invasive and noninvasive (Liboff, 2006). Semi-Invasive Treatment Semi-invasive systems are semi-implantable: partially internal and partially external. The device provides a constant direct current supplied by an external power supply. The electrodes, on the other hand, are percutaneous and pass through the skin (Electrical Bone Growth Stimulators). These systems, however, are not currently in production, and consequently are not refered to by other scholars and have no relevant data (Clinical Policy Bulletin: Bone Growth Stimulators, 2010). Invasive Treatment The invasive treatment option, also known as direct current (DC) stimulation, is fully implanted and utilizes constant direct current. The device requires two surgies: one to implant the device, and one to remove the device. The anode is placed in the soft tissue, and the cathodes are connected to a power supply (typically a lithium battery) [cain] and placed at the fusion site. At the fracture site, the electrodes can be arranged in two ways (Figure 9). They can be placed on each side of the fracture as to bridge the defect; or, the electrode can be placed directly in the defect (Liboff, 2006). The although the current setting depends upon the fracture, it is typically set at 20 uA for up to six months (Lyle E. Cain, 2002). Noninvasive Treatments There are both electric and electromagnetic noninvasive EBGS devices. They are completely external and do not require surgery. Electric Option The electric noninvasive EBGS device works through capacitive coupling (CC). The CC device uses a 60 kHz alternating sinusoidal signal to produce a current. Two electrodes are placed on the skin, one on each side of the fracture (Figure 10) (Gan, Fredericks, Glazer, 2004). The power supply (typically a 9-V battery) is worn on the hip, and operated twenty four hours a day. Treatment generally applies 5-10 mA at the skin, and 15-20 uA at the fracture site. Device maintainence relies on the patient and includes changing the battery daily. Electromagnetic Options Pulsed Magnetic Field The pulsed magnetic field device (PMF or PEMF) follows Faradays law that Any change in the magnetic environment of a coil of wire will cause a voltage (emf) to be induced in the coil (Faradays Law). It applies a sawtooth (nonsinusoidal) voltage to two parallel external coils, one above the fusion site, and one below (see figure #). The applied voltage creates a current through the coils that generates a single, magnetic field through the defect. Because the field is constantly changing, an induced voltage is created, which appears as pulses (Liboff, 2006). The coils can be worn on the skin, or over a cast (if applicable) (Lyle E. Cain, 2002). The device includes an external battery pack and may be operated up to ten hours a day (Lyle E. Cain, 2002), but treatment is typically only three hours daily (Liboff, 2006). Ion Cyclotron Resonance The ion cyclotron resonance (ICR) device is similar to the PFM device in that it also uses an external coil system. ICR devices, however, apply a different theory than PMF devices. It was shown in 1985 that the results embodied in the so-called calcium efflux effect were in close agreement with the predictions based on the resonance characteristics of certain biological ions subject to the Lorentz force (Liboff, 2006). The device combines both dc and ac magnetic fields to achieve resonant condition. The theory is that ions in resonance are more likely to stimulate the gating mechanism for ion channel transport, and tuning to these ions can increase growth (Liboff, 2006). The device (Figure 11) also uses an external battery pack, and the unit should only be operated thirty minutes per day (Lyle E. Cain, 2002). Regulatory Standards The FDA recognizes the noninvasive bone growth stimulator and the invasive bone growth stimulator under the Title 21-Food and Drugs, of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) (Product Classification, 2010). Both are Class III devices, so they must abide by general controls and receive premarket approval. Class III devices support or sustain human life, that are of substantial importance in preventing impairment of human health, or that present a potential, unreasonable risk of illness or injury. Premarket approval (PMA) is the FDA process of scientific and regulatory review to evaluate the safety and effectiveness of Class III medical devices. A PMA application must be submitted and reviewed before marketing the products because they are considered high-risk medical devices (Device Classification, 2010). Device Review Advantages Previous treatments for nonunions included rigid fixation, bone grafts, and amputation. The electric bone growth stimulator has several advantages over these more tradition treatments. The treatment is less severe than bone grafting and the hospital stay after the invasive treatment is typically only three to four days, as opposed to ten days of recovery after grafts. Also, the average completion time for a successful union is only four months, compared to six to eight for bone grafts (Anbuselvan, Krishnamurthy, Madhumathi, Manonmani, Aravindan, Babu, 1995). Moreover, the EBGS is less traumatic than amputation and allows for the retention of limbs. In regards to the devices, the invasive option is advantageous because it provides constant uniform current and does not require an active patient role. After surgery, the device is self operated and maintained. Also, the invasive option bypasses tissue resulting in less resistance and better treatment results. The CC device is small, light, and easy to use (Lyle E. Cain, 2002). Disadvantages The main disadvantage of the EBGS is that union may be unsuccessful if the fracture gap is too large, typically over one centimeter. Also, before an EBGS is used, it must be determined that the bone is not healing properly on its own. Lastly, these devices have not yet been proven successful for treatment of nonunions in locations other than long bones or spine (Clinical Policy Bulletin: Bone Growth Stimulators, 2010). In regards to the devices, the invasive option has a higher hospital cost and patient morbidity due to the surgeries necessary for device implantation and removal. The CC device requires patient compliance. The patient must monitor, operate, and maintain the device, which includes changing the battery daily. Also, there may be skin irritation from the electrodes. Also, the PEMF and ICR devices are often larger and heavy than other external devices, which may create difficulties for patients (Clinical Policy Bulletin: Bone Growth Stimulators, 2010). Product Comparison Biomet is the only company that produces invasive electric bone growth stimulators. Their products include the OsteoGen Bone Growth Stimulator, the OsteoGen Dual Lead Bone Growth Stimulator for use with bone graft surgery, and the OsteoGen-M Bone Growth Stimulator, which utilizes a mesh cathode. Biomet also produces the following external, noninvasive EBGS devices: EBI Bone Healing System and the OrthoPak 2 Bone Growth Stimulator. The EBI Bone Healing System is more convenient because the actual device is worn like a sports band or brace that wraps around the limb, where as the OrthoPak 2 is a larger device with dermal electrodes that must be carried along with the battery pack. On the plus side, the OrthoPak 2 allows for easier placement of hard-to-reach fracture sites (Biomet, 2010). DJO sells the CMF OL1000 Bone Growth Stimulator. It follows a similar concept as the EBI Bone Healing System, except this device is not fully closed, giving it the ability of being worn over a cast if necessary (Products, 2009). Literature Review We assigned the designated sections of the report to each team member to research individually. We attended a research session with librarian Christine Drew to better understand WPIs academic databases and resources. Key terms used in our research included the following: electric bone growth stimulator, bone growth stimulator, bone growth devices, fracture healing, delayed union fracture, non union fracture, Faradays Law, Wolffs Law, piezoelectricity, bone repair, bone cells, electric bone growth device regulations, cost of bone growth stimulation, FDA class III devices, premarket approval, bone growth device history, Luigi Galvani, electric bone growth studies, companies that sell electric bone growth stimulators, Biomet, Exogen, modern electric growth theory, and bone growth stimulator patent. We searched several databases and reliable search engines including the following: Google Books, Google Scholar, Gale PowerSearch, EBSCOhost, ScienceDirect, PubMed, and Wiley Interscience.